Article 325 ('No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex') in Part XV (Elections) protects the democratic foundation of the Republic. It governs the independent Election Commission of India (Art 324), prohibits separate or discriminatory electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, or sex (Art 325), guarantees universal adult suffrage at age 18+ (Art 326), empowers electoral legislation (Arts 327–328), and channels election disputes through formal election petitions (Art 329). Specifically: There shall be one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency for election to either House of Parliament or to the House or either House of the Legislature of a State and no person shall be ineligible for inclusion in any...
When the Indian Constitution came into force in 1950, Article 326 executed the boldest democratic experiment in human history: while Western democracies took centuries to grant voting rights to women, the poor, and racial minorities, India granted Universal Adult Suffrage to every adult citizen—man or woman, billionaire or daily-wage labourer, literate or unlettered—from Day One.
Originally set at 21 years, the voting age was lowered to 18 years by the historic 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988, empowering India's youth. Combined with Article 325 (which prohibits separate communal electorates and forbids excluding anyone from the voter roll on grounds of religion, race, caste, or sex), Article 326 ensures that political sovereignty rests in the hands of ordinary citizens.
Article 327 ('Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to Legislatures') in Part XV (Elections) protects the democratic foundation of the Republic. It governs the independent Election Commission of India (Art 324), prohibits separate or discriminatory electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, or sex (Art 325), guarantees universal adult suffrage at age 18+ (Art 326), empowers electoral legislation (Arts 327–328), and channels election disputes through formal election petitions (Art 329). Specifically: Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, Parliament may from time to time by law make provision with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with, elections to either House of Parliament or to the House or either House...
Article 328 ('Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to such Legislature') in Part XV (Elections) protects the democratic foundation of the Republic. It governs the independent Election Commission of India (Art 324), prohibits separate or discriminatory electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, or sex (Art 325), guarantees universal adult suffrage at age 18+ (Art 326), empowers electoral legislation (Arts 327–328), and channels election disputes through formal election petitions (Art 329). Specifically: Subject to the provisions of this Constitution and in so far as provision in that behalf is not made by Parliament, the Legislature of a State may from time to time by law make provision with respect to all matters relating to, or in...
Article 329 ('Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters') in Part XV (Elections) protects the democratic foundation of the Republic. It governs the independent Election Commission of India (Art 324), prohibits separate or discriminatory electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, or sex (Art 325), guarantees universal adult suffrage at age 18+ (Art 326), empowers electoral legislation (Arts 327–328), and channels election disputes through formal election petitions (Art 329). Specifically: Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution — (a) the validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the allotment of seats to such constituencies, made or purporting to be made under article 327 or article...
Article 330 ('Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) Seats shall be reserved in the House of the People for — (a) the Scheduled Castes; (b) the Scheduled Tribes except the Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam; and (c) the Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous...
Article 331 ('Representation of the Anglo-Indian Community in the House of the People') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: Notwithstanding anything in article 81, the President may, if he is of opinion that the Anglo-Indian community is not adequately represented in the House of the People, nominate not more than two members of that community to the House of...
Article 332 ('Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) Seats shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, except the Scheduled Tribes in the autonomous districts of Assam, in the Legislative Assembly of every State. (2) Seats shall be reserved also for the...
Article 333 ('Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: Notwithstanding anything in article 170, the Governor of a State may, if he is of opinion that the Anglo-Indian community needs representation in the Legislative Assembly of the State and is not adequately represented therein, nominate one...
Article 334 ('Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after certain period') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, the provisions of this Constitution relating to — (a) the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People and in the...
Article 335 ('Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in...
Article 336 ('Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) During the first two years after the commencement of this Constitution, appointments of members of the Anglo-Indian community to posts in the railway, customs, postal and telegraph services of the Union shall be made on the same basis...
Article 337 ('Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: During the first three financial years after the commencement of this Constitution, the same grants, if any, shall be made by the Union and by each State for the benefit of the Anglo-Indian community in respect of education as were made in...
Article 338 ('National Commission for Scheduled Castes') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) There shall be a Commission for the Scheduled Castes to be known as the National Commission for the Scheduled Castes. (2) Subject to the provisions of any law made in this behalf by Parliament, the Commission shall consist of a...
Article 338A ('National Commission for Scheduled Tribes') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) There shall be a Commission for the Scheduled Tribes to be known as the National Commission for the Scheduled Tribes. (2) Subject to the provisions of any law made in this behalf by Parliament, the Commission shall consist of a...
Article 339 ('Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) The President may at any time and shall, at the expiration of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution by order appoint a Commission to report on the administration of the Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled...
Article 340 ('Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) The President may by order appoint a Commission consisting of such persons as he thinks fit to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes within the territory of India and the difficulties under which...
Article 341 ('Scheduled Castes') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) The President 2 [may with respect to any State 3 [or Union territory], and where it is a State, after consultation with the Governor thereof, by public notification, specify the castes, races or tribes or parts of or groups within...
Article 342 ('Scheduled Tribes') in Part XVI (Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes) institutionalizes social justice and political representation for historically marginalized communities. It governs reserved seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha (Art 330) and State Assemblies (Art 332), claims in public services (Art 335), and the constitutional National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (Art 338), Scheduled Tribes (Art 338A), and Backward Classes (Art 338B). Specifically: (1) The President may with respect to any State or Union territory, and where it is a State 4, after consultation with the Governor thereof, by public notification6 , specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within...
Article 343 ('Official language of the Union') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: (1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. (2) Notwithstanding anything in clause...
Article 344 ('Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: (1) The President shall, at the expiration of five years from the commencement of this Constitution and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, by order constitute a Commission which shall consist of a Chairman...
Article 345 ('Official language or languages of a State') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the language or languages to be used for all or any of the official purposes of...
Article 346 ('Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: The language for the time being authorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall be the official language for communication between one State and another State and between a State and the Union: Provided that if two or more...
Article 347 ('Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: On a demand being made in that behalf the President may, if he is satisfied that a substantial proportion of the population of a State desire the use of any language spoken by them to be recognised by that State, direct that such language...
Article 348 ('Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: (1) Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, until Parliament by law otherwise provides — (a) all proceedings in the Supreme Court and in every High Court, (b) the authoritative texts — (i) of all Bills...
Article 349 ('Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: During the period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, no Bill or amendment making provision for the language to be used for any of the purposes mentioned in clause (1) of article 348 shall be introduced or moved in...
Article 350 ('Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be.
Article 350A ('Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: It shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority...
Article 350B ('Special Officer for linguistic minorities') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: (1) There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President. (2) It shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities...
Article 351 ('Directive for development of the Hindi language') in Part XVII (Official Language, Articles 343–351) harmonizes India's rich linguistic diversity. It governs the official language of the Union (Arts 343–344), regional official languages adopted by States (Arts 345–347), language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, and authoritative Bills/Acts (Art 348), the right of every citizen to submit grievance petitions in any language used in the Union or State (Art 350), and primary education in the mother tongue (Art 350A). Specifically: It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating...
